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Natural Active Immunity

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Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and then develops immunity.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast: active natural and active artifical immunity

Key Takeaways

• Artificial Immune System (AIS) is a class of algorithms used in computational systems with the principles of the immune system of higher class of vertebrates. The algorithms of Artificial Immune System (AIS) typically exploit the characteristics of the immune system in terms of learning, memory and as a means of solving problems.
• This has created a false sense of security for Mac OS X users, though. While the Mac operating system is more secure than PC operating systems at this point in time, that doesn't mean Macs are immune.

Mac OS X & macOS names. As you can see from the list above, with the exception of the first OS X beta, all versions of the Mac operating system from 2001 to 2012 were all named after big cats.

Key Points

• Once a microbe penetrates the body’s skin, mucous membranes, or other primary defenses, it interacts with the immune system.
• Active immunization entails the introduction of a foreign molecule into the body, which causes the development of an immnune response via activation of the T cells and B cells.
• The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but which does not itself cause the pathogenic effects of that organism.

Key Terms

• immunity: the state of being insusceptible to a specific thing.
• vaccination: inoculation with a vaccine in order to protect a particular disease or strain of disease.

Immunity is the state of protection against infectious disease conferred either through an immune response generated by immunization or previous infection, or by other non-immunological factors. There are two ways to acquire active resistance against invading microbes: active natural and active artificial.

Typhoid vaccination: Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination) is the deliberate induction of an immune response, and represents the single most effective manipulation of the immune system that scientists have developed.

Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response. Once a microbe penetrates the body’s skin, mucous membranes, or other primary defenses, it interacts with the immune system. B-cells in the body produce antibodies that help to fight against the invading microbes. The adaptive immune response generated against the pathogen takes days or weeks to develop but may be long-lasting, or even lifelong. Wild infection, for example with hepatitis A virus (HAV) and subsequent recovery, gives rise to a natural active immune response usually leading to lifelong protection.

In a similar manner, administration of two doses of hepatitis A vaccine generates an acquired active immune response leading to long-lasting (possibly lifelong) protection. Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination) is the deliberate induction of an immune response, and represents the single most effective manipulation of the immune system that scientists have developed. Immunizations are successful because they utilize the immune system’s natural specificity as well as its inducibility. The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but which does not itself cause the pathogenic effects of that organism.

Natural Passive Immunity

Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, when antibodies are passed from the maternal blood into the fetal bloodstream.

Learning Objectives

Outline the various ways to obtain passive immunity

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Immunity is transferred through the placenta in the form of antibodies, mainly IgG and IgA.
• Natural passive immunity can also be transferred through breast milk.
• Natural passive immunity is short-lived after the birth of the child.

Key Terms

• IgG: immunoglobulin G is an antibody isotype.
• IgA: immunoglobulin A is an antibody isotype.
• passive immunity: the translocation of active humoral immunity from one individual to another in the form of custom-made antibodies.

Immunity is the state of protection against infectious disease conferred either through an immune response generated by immunization or previous infection, or by other non-immunological factors. There are two ways to acquire passive resistance against disease: passive natural and passive artificial. Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the maternal blood into the fetal bloodstream in the form of IgG. Antibodies are transferred from one person to another through natural means such as in prenatal and postnatal relationships between mother and child. Some antibodies can cross the placenta and enter the fetal blood. This provides some protection for the child for a short time after birth, but eventually these deteriorate and the infant must rely on its own immune system. Antibodies may also be transferred through breast milk. The transfered IgG from mother to fetus during pregnancy generally lasts 4 to 6 months after birth. The immune responses reach full strength at about age 5.

IgA antibody: The dimeric IgA molecule.1 H-chain2 L-chain3 J-chain4 secretory component. IgA antibodies are transferred from mother to child in colostrum and milk and confer passive immunity.

Passive immunity can also be in the form of IgA and IgG found in human colostrum and milk of babies who are nursed. In addition to the IgA and IgG, human milk also contains: oligosaccharides and mucins that adhere to bacteria and viruses to interfere with their attachment to host cells; lactoferrin to bind iron and make it unavailable to most bacteria; B₁₂ binding protein to deprive bacteria of needed vitamin B_12; bifidus factor that promotes the growth of Lactobacillus bifidus, normal flora in the gastrointestinal tract of infants that crowds out harmful bacteria; fibronectin that increases the antimicrobial activity of macrophages and helps repair tissue damage from infection in the gastrointestinal tract; gamma-interferon, a cytokine that enhances the activity of certain immune cells; hormones and growth factors that stimulate the baby’s gastrointestinal tract to mature faster and be less susceptible to infection; and lysozyme to break down peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls.

Artificial Immunity

Artificial immunity is a mean by which the body is given immunity to a disease by intentional exposure to small quantities of it.

Learning Objectives

Describe artificially acquired immunity and how it is obtained

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The most common form of artificial immunity is classified as active and comes in the form of vaccinations, typically given to children and young adults.
• The passive form of artificial immunity involves introducing an antibody into the system once a person has already been infected with a disease, ultimately relieving the present symptoms of the sickness and preventing re-occurrence.
• Once the body has successfully rid itself of a disease caused by a certain pathogen, a second infection with the same pathogen would prove harmless.

Key Terms

• gamma globulin: a class of proteins in the blood, identified by their position after serum protein electrophoresis, such as antibodies
• anaphylactic shock: A severe and rapid systemic allergic reaction to an allergen, constricting the trachea and preventing breathing.
• herd immunity: the protection given to a community against an epidemic of a contagious disease when a sufficient number of the population are immunised or otherwise develop immunity to it

Immunity is the state of protection against infectious disease conferred either through an immune response generated by immunization or by previous infection or other non-immunological factors.

Artificial immunity can be active or passive.

Immunity: Natural immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, where as artificial immunity develops only through deliberate actions of exposure. Both natural and artificial immunity can be further subdivided, depending on the amount of time the protection lasts. Passive immunity is short lived, and usually lasts only a few months, whereas protection via active immunity lasts much longer, and is sometimes life-long.

Artificially-acquired passive immunity is an immediate, but short-term immunization provided by the injection of antibodies, such as gamma globulin, that are not produced by the recipient’s cells. These antibodies are developed in another individual or animal and then injected into another individual. Antiserum is the general term used for preparations that contains antibodies.

Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or parts of it, are injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. If whole microbes are used, they are pre-treated, attenuated vaccines. This vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen in the recipient without causing symptoms of the disease.

Artificial passive immunization is normally administered by injection and is used if there has been a recent outbreak of a particular disease or as an emergency treatment for toxicity, as in for tetanus. The antibodies can be produced in animals, called ” serum therapy,” although there is a high chance of anaphylactic shock because of immunity against animal serum itself. Thus, humanized antibodies produced in vitro by cell culture are used instead if available.

The first record of artificial immunity was in relation to a disease known as smallpox. Individuals were exposed to a minor strain of smallpox in a controlled environment. Once their bodies built up a natural immunity or resistance to the weakened strain of smallpox, they became much less likely to become infected with the more deadly strains of the disease. In essence, patients were given the disease in order to help fight it later in life. Although this method was an effective one, the scientists of the time had no real scientific knowledge of why it worked.

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Macintosh operating systems, specifically Mac OS X, have a reputation of being very secure, much more so than Windows XP.

Apple touts that frequently and openly in its advertisements and television commercials. Is this reputation deserved? Frankly, yes, but with a big caveat -- the situation is changing.

The Danger of Popularity

Mac OS X is built on what is considered to be one of the more secure Unix-based operating systems, BSD. However, that's not the only reason Macs have had a reputation of being more secure.

Windows has the dominant market share, which gives attackers the largest number of targets to saturate when attacking networks -- and let's face it, Microsoft has done a poor job in the past of building a secure operating system, browser and applications. This has changed significantly with the well accepted 'patch Tuesday' process and a concentrated focus by Microsoft to improve Windows XP and the upcoming Windows Vista release.

This has created a false sense of security for Mac OS X users, though. While the Mac operating system is more secure than PC operating systems at this point in time, that doesn't mean Macs are immune. Overconfident Mac users may find themselves unprepared when a worm or exploit does hit.

Apple Becomes Vulnerable

In mid-2006, McAfee's Avert Labs reported that the number of Mac security vulnerabilities had increased 228 percent since 2003. Just recently, in August 2006, Apple released fixes for 26 security vulnerabilities in Mac OS X 10.4.7 and 10.3.9.

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Two patches for code execution vulnerabilities were released almost immediately following the introduction of the Intel-based Mac Pro running Mac OS X 10.4.7. In the fall of 2006, a Symantec study reported that the number of vulnerabilities in the Mac Safari Internet browser doubled during the first half of 2006 compared to the previous six months.

Commotion was stirred up at the 2006 Black Hat Conference in Las Vegas after speakers demonstrated a Macintosh vulnerability in third-party 802.11 WiFi drivers. While Apple attempted to defuse the criticism as a third-party problem, the company ended up delivering patches for two separate stack buffer overflow problems in the Apple AirPort wireless drivers.

The fact of the matter is that despite Apple's work to maintain the image of Macs as secure devices, researchers are concentrating much more heavily on finding underlying security vulnerabilities in Mac software. As a result, we are seeing security patches for Apple software now on a regular basis.

Intel-based Mac Pro introduces a new wrinkle in the Mac security fabric: virtualization. Windows XP can be run as a virtual machine on the Mac Pro, creating a situation where is it just as vulnerable as the any other unsecured or unpatched Windows device.

Mac Security Answers

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What should Mac OS X users do to secure their computers? Here are some starting recommendations:

Artificial Immunity Mac Os X

1. Don't be complacent. Take the security of any computing platform seriously, whether it's a Mac, PC, PDA or phone. The easiest device to compromise is the one that everyone assumes won't be attacked. Overconfident Mac users are ripe for the picking, so don't become the next security victim by believing your Mac cannot be compromised.
2. Apply security updates. Windows users have learned this lesson the hard way and so has the OS manufacturer, Microsoft. Beginning with Windows XP SP2, automatic application of security patches is enabled by default removing one less opportunity for the device to be left unprotected against the latest vulnerability. Whenever possible, apply a Mac OS X security patch automatically so your Mac is up to date with the latest security fixes.
3. Use a bi-directional personal firewall. The personal firewall provided with Mac OS X only offers protection for network connections that are inbound to the Mac. Consider upgrading to a third-party firewall, such as free Brickhouse software, that offers inbound and outbound firewall protection. Also, remember that the least intrusive and easiest-to-use personal firewall is one that will likely stay in use and not be disabled due to annoying pop-ups or configuration screens.
4. Practice good WiFi security connections. Use a good security and encryption technique, such as WEP, to secure the network. Be cautious when connecting to open networks -- such as at the airport or local coffee shop -- and never initiate a WiFi connection to an ad hoc network, unless you know what the device is on the other end and that it has been properly secured.
5. Use AV software. Don't take a chance of being the first Mac user to get the next e-mail-borne virus. Yes, it is common for Mac users to go without antivirus software, but this is slowly changing.
6. Use good security practices with Windows virtualization. Secure that Windows virtual session just like any other Windows computer on the network. Automatic updates, personal firewalls and antivirus software are musts for any Windows computer and virtual Windows XP session. A Mac Pro computer is no different.

Replacing complacency with good security practices can protect any Mac OS X user. Believing Macs are secure just because television advertisements say they are builds a false sense of security. The increase of Mac OS X vulnerabilities and the number of patches released clearly show that Mac security may soon be a thing of the past.